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REC // PROFILE
// NATIONAL DEFENSE PROFILE
South Korea flag

SouthKorea

Country in East Asia

POPULATION
52M
ACTIVE PERSONNEL
500K
BUDGET
$50B
NUCLEAR WARHEADS
0
AIRCRAFT CARRIERS
1
MACSI
65
South Korea flag

SouthKorea

Multi-dimensional military power index · 0–100
Land Power
70
Air Power
70
Naval Power
65
Leadership
70
Strategic
48
Industry
78
C4ISR
68
Logistics
62
Economy
60
Geo-Strategic
55
MACSI(Military Archive Country Strength Index)
65
South Korea MACSI Rating
6/190
WORLD RANKING
South Korea · 10 axes scored
Land Power
70
Air Power
70
Naval Power
65
Leadership
70
Strategic
48
Industry
78
C4ISR
68
Logistics
62
Economy
60
Geo-Strategic
55
ⓘ The ten scoring axes are weighted per country by coastal, nuclear, industrial, and geostrategic tier, then judged from real-world knowledge rather than stored database attributes — see methodology.
01 / Overview
South Korea
Government
Republic
Population
51.70M
Area
100,000 km²
GDP (Nominal)
$1.70T
Active Personnel
500.0K
Reserve Personnel
3.00M
Defense Budget
$50.0B · %2 GDP
Conscription
Universal
⚠ ONGOING CONFLICT
2018 Korean Navy radar lock-on incident
2018 · to present
ACTIVE
CONFLICT ONGOING
02 / Military Strength · 76 metrics · 9 categories
65
TIER C MACSI · ABSOLUTE POWER · #6 WORLD
Land Power
70
Air Power
70
Naval Power
65
Leadership
70
Strategic
48
Industry
78
C4ISR
68
Logistics
62
Economy
60
Geo-Strategic
55
MACSIMilitary Archive Country Strength Index
#CountryOverallLandAirNavalLeadershipStrategicIndustryC4ISRLogisticsEconomy
#4Russia67756858459078555550
#5United Kingdom66506870726268806274
#6South Korea65707065704878686260
#7Japan61456572624565706078
#8Israel57586535725565785530
Comparison countries are selected automatically based on global rankings.
Personnel Structure
Total Population: 51.7M
Active500K
Reserve3.0M
Paramilitary100K
Mobilization capacity: %6.96 of total population
Economic Burden
$50.0B 2% of GDP
0% 5%+
Per Capita $967/yr
Per Soldier $100,000/yr
Strategic Infrastructure
Military Airports 20
Total Airports 100
Major Ports 10
Coastline 2,413 km
Oil Production 40K bbl/day
All Military Metrics 76 metrics · 9 categories
01 Personnel 8
  • Active Personnel 500,000
  • Reserve Personnel 3,000,000
  • Paramilitary Personnel 100,000
  • Total Military Personnel 3,500,000
  • Available for Military Service 20,000,000
  • Reaching Military Age Annually 500,000
  • Conscription Status Universal
  • Conscription Duration (days) 18 day
02 Land Forces 12
03 Air Forces 12
  • Total Aircraft 1,500
  • Fighter Aircraft Count 400
  • Ground Attack Aircraft Count 100
  • Bomber Aircraft Count 0
  • Transport Aircraft Count 100
  • Tanker Aircraft Count 10
  • AWACS Count 4
  • Trainer Aircraft Count 100
  • Total Helicopters 600
  • Attack Helicopter Count 300
  • Transport Helicopter Count 200
  • UAV Count 500
04 Naval Forces 11
  • Total Ships 160
  • Aircraft Carrier Count 1
  • Amphibious Assault Ship Count 1
  • Cruiser Count 0
  • Destroyer Count 12
  • Frigate Count 12
  • Corvette Count 20
  • Total Submarines 20
  • SSN Count 0
  • SSBN Count 0
  • Patrol Boat Count 80
05 Strategic Forces 9
06 Budget & Economy 10
  • Defense Budget (USD) 50,000,000,000 USD
  • Defense Budget (% of GDP) 2 %
  • Defense Budget per Capita (USD) 967 USD
  • GDP (Nominal, USD) 1,700,000,000,000 USD
  • GDP (PPP, USD) 2,500,000,000,000 USD
  • Arms Exports (USD) 1,000,000,000 USD
  • Arms Imports (USD) 15,000,000,000 USD
  • Defense Industry Rank 6
  • Defense Industry Size (USD) 15,000,000,000 USD
  • Defense Sector Employment 500,000
07 Logistics & Infrastructure 6
  • Military Airport Count 20
  • Total Airport Count 100
  • Major Port Count 10
  • Oil Production (bbl/day) 40,000 bbl/day
  • Oil Reserves (bbl) 200,000,000 bbl
  • Coastline (km) 2,413 km
08 Demographics 5
  • Total Population 51,700,000
  • Military Age Population 35,000,000
  • Urban Population (%) 81 %
  • Literacy Rate (%) 98 %
  • Area (km²) 100,000 km²
09 Government & Alliances 3
03 / Inventory · 658 systems · 109 categories · 2,654,456 units
Force Composition
Not yet entered. This chart will populate automatically once inventory data is added.
Status & Age Distribution
Status
525
Active 525 Ordered 1 Retired 132
Age Profile
40years
average
%12
<10 yrs
Aging Fleet
1945–2025
Inventory 658 systems · 41 categories · 2,654,456 units
ARMOURED VEHICLES
ARTILLERY & MISSILE SYSTEMS
AIR DEFENSE SYSTEMS
MINES & EXPLOSIVE DEVICES
FIREARMS
GRENADE LAUNCHERS & GRENADES
OPTICS & TARGETING
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
MILITARY VEHICLES
DIRECTED ENERGY
FIGHTER & ATTACK AIRCRAFT
TRANSPORT & CARGO AIRCRAFT
TANKER AIRCRAFT
HELICOPTERS
UAV / DRONES
SPECIAL MISSION AIRCRAFT
TRAINING AIRCRAFT
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
CARRIERS & AMPHIBIOUS
SURFACE COMBATANTS
SUBMARINES
AMPHIBIOUS WARFARE SHIPS
MINE WARFARE & PATROL
AUXILIARY & SUPPORT SHIPS
NAVAL WEAPON SYSTEMS
BALLISTIC MISSILES
ATGM
ANTI-SHIP MISSILES
AIR-TO-AIR MISSILES
AIR-TO-SURFACE MISSILES
CRUISE MISSILES
BALLISTIC (CONVENTIONAL)
GUIDED BOMBS
UNGUIDED AERIAL MUNITIONS
THERMOBARIC & SPECIAL
NAVAL SAM
RADAR SYSTEMS
MILITARY COMMS
RECON SATELLITES
ASAT
LAUNCH VEHICLES
RECENT ACQUISITIONS & MODERNIZATION NEED
LAST 5 ACQUISITIONS
SYSTEMS 20+ YEARS IN SERVICE
04 / Defense Sector · 20 companies · 91 systems produced · 68 deals
DEFENSE TRADE BALANCE annual estimate · from DB
Defense Industry Size
$15.0 Mr
annual output value
Sector Employment
500 K
total employees
↗ EXPORTS
$1.0 Mr
↘ IMPORTS
$15.0 Mr
⚖ NET BALANCE
$-14.0 Mr
NET IMPORTER
In exports 32
In imports 2
Export per Capita $19.3 per citizen
Import per Capita $290 per citizen
💡Samsung Group's annual revenue ($208.5B) exceeds Algeria's entire GDP ($180.0B).
📊South Korea's total recorded company revenue ($221.0B) exceeds Qatar's entire GDP ($220.0B).
OWNERSHIP STRUCTURE & SECTOR STARS
OWNERSHIP DISTRIBUTION
Fully State1
Public-Listed8
SECTOR STARS
LARGEST
◆ Samsung Group
$208.5B
WIDEST PORTFOLIO
🎯 HD Hyundai Heavy Industries
18 distinct systems
MOST EMPLOYEES
👥 Samsung Group
263K employees
SECTOR HERITAGE
OLDEST COMPANY
HJ Shipbuilding & Construction
1937 (89 years old)
NEWEST COMPANY
Hanwha Vision
2018 (8 years old)
Sector average age 45 years
SECTOR OVER THE YEARS
2
1930s
1
1950s
3
1960s
4
1970s
3
1980s
3
1990s
2
2000s
2
2010s
PRODUCTION PROFILE
91
Total Systems
68
Ongoing
23
Ended
68
Avg. MASS Score
DOMAIN DISTRIBUTION · Still Producing 68 · No Longer Produced 23
Land 40
Naval 34
Air 5
Space 1
ALL COMPANIES 20 companies · 18 active · 2 defunct
Sort:
Company Revenue Systems Score
Samsung Group 005930 $208.5B 3 —
HJ Shipbuilding & Construction 097230 $2.4B 5 —
Hanwha Aerospace 012450 $2.3B 11 —
Hanwha Vision $2.1B 1 —
Korea Aerospace Industries 047810 $1.6B 2 —
LIG Defense&Aerospace 079550 $1.3B 15 —
Hyundai WIA $1.0B 3 —
Hanwha Ocean $940M 10 —
Hyundai Rotem 064350 $770M 8 —
Daewoo DEFUNCT — 4 —
Dasan Machineries — 1 —
HD Hyundai Heavy Industries — 18 —
Hanwha Group 000880 — 3 —
Innospace — — —
Kangnam Corporation — 2 —
Korea Aerospace Research Institute — — —
LIG Nex1 — 14 —
Q213147 003490 — 2 —
SNT Motiv — 13 —
Samsung Aerospace DEFUNCT — 1 —
1 / 2
Production 91 systems · 24 categories
Show:
ARMOURED VEHICLES
ARTILLERY & MISSILE SYSTEMS
AIR DEFENSE SYSTEMS
FIREARMS
GRENADE LAUNCHERS & GRENADES
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
MILITARY VEHICLES
HELICOPTERS
UAV / DRONES
SPECIAL MISSION AIRCRAFT
CARRIERS & AMPHIBIOUS
SURFACE COMBATANTS
SUBMARINES
AMPHIBIOUS WARFARE SHIPS
MINE WARFARE & PATROL
AUXILIARY & SUPPORT SHIPS
NAVAL WEAPON SYSTEMS
BALLISTIC MISSILES
ATGM
ANTI-SHIP MISSILES
CRUISE MISSILES
BALLISTIC (CONVENTIONAL)
GUIDED BOMBS
RECON SATELLITES
RECENT DEFENSE DEALS37 export · 19 import · 4 domestic
DirectionYearCounterpartyProduct / ServiceQuantityAmountTypeStatus
↗2026NorwayK239 Chunmoo16—new-buildordered
↘2025United StatesBullfrog autonomous weapon systems (close-in drone defeat)——exportSigned
↗2025EstoniaK239 Chunmoo9—new-buildordered
↘2024PolandWarmate 3 (combat + training sets)200$11 MSaleDelivered
↗2024MalaysiaK-SAAM48—new-buildordered
↗2024Saudi ArabiaM-SAM10$3.2 Mrnew-buildordered
↗2024IraqM-SAM8$2.8 Mrnew-buildordered
↗2023United Arab EmiratesM-SAM12$3.5 Mrnew-buildordered
↗2023PhilippinesDasan Machineries K165,755—new-buildDelivered
⟳2023Domestic supplyK2 Black Panther150—new-buildordered
↗2022→2023PolandK239 Chunmoo290—new-buildDelivered
↗2022PolandK2 Black Panther180—new-buildordered
↗2019IndiaK30 Biho104$2.6 Mrnew-buildCancelled
↗2018PhilippinesS&T Motiv K16——new-buildDelivered
↘2015IsraelIAI Panther——new-buildordered
↗2014FijiKH1786—giftDelivered
↘2014→2019United StatesNorthrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk4$657 Mnew-buildDelivered
⟳2012→2021Domestic supplyS&T Motiv K14—$3 Mnew-buildDelivered
↘2012United KingdomAW159 Wildcat8—new-buildDelivered
↗2012MalawiDaewoo Precision Industries K22,100—new-buildDelivered
↗2012CambodiaDaewoo Precision Industries K2128—aidDelivered
↗2011EcuadorDaewoo Precision Industries K2——new-buildDelivered
↗2011IndonesiaKH17918—new-buildDelivered
↗2011IndonesiaDaewoo Precision Industries K5——new-buildDelivered
↗2011GuatemalaDaewoo Precision Industries K5——new-buildDelivered
↗2010United Arab EmiratesS&T Daewoo K1140$560,000new-buildDelivered
↗2010IndonesiaKH17854—new-buildDelivered
↗2008IndonesiaDaewoo Precision Industries K2210—new-buildDelivered
↘—→2008United StatesBoeing F-15K Slam Eagle61—new-buildDelivered
↗2007→2009TurkeyK1A1 tank40—license-productionDelivered
↗2004EgyptK136 Kooryong36—new-buildDelivered
⟳1996→1999Domestic supplyK1A1 tank——new-buildDelivered
↘1995IsraelHarpy anti-radiation loitering munition100$50 MSaleDelivered
↗1991ChileKH17816—new-buildDelivered
⟳1983→1985Domestic supplyK1A1 tank——new-buildDelivered
↗1980FijiDaewoo Precision Industries K2——new-buildDelivered
↘1976ItalyFiat 6614——license-productionDelivered
↘1976GermanyUR-416——evaluation-onlyDelivered
↘1974United StatesKangwon-class destroyer5—aidDelivered
↘1950→1951United StatesM26 Pershing200—aidDelivered
↘1948United States105 mm Howitzer M398—aidDelivered
↘—Thales NederlandSMART-L1—new-buildDelivered
↘—United StatesRIM-174 Standard ERAM——new-buildordered
↘—United StatesBoeing P-8 Poseidon——new-buildordered
↗—United Arab EmiratesK239 Chunmoo12—new-buildDelivered
↗—Saudi ArabiaK239 Chunmoo36—new-buildDelivered
↗—IraqS&T Motiv K14——new-build
↗—IranDaewoo Precision Industries K7——illegal-copyDelivered
↗—ThailandDaewoo Precision Industries K72—new-buildDelivered
↗—IndonesiaDaewoo Precision Industries K71,786—new-buildDelivered
↘—United StatesM56 Scorpion60—second-handDelivered
↗—IndonesiaAssault Amphibious Vehicle15—giftDelivered
↘—GermanyCondor2—new-buildDelivered
↘—CanadaRoshel Senator——
↘—United StatesMcDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle61—new-buildDelivered
↗—LebanonDaewoo Precision Industries K2——new-buildDelivered
↗—IraqDaewoo Precision Industries K2——new-buildDelivered
↗—ColombiaDonghae-class corvette1—giftDelivered
↗—MyanmarKH179100—new-buildDelivered
↗—IranKH179——new-buildDelivered
1 / 6
ALL-TIME ARMS TRADE68transactions · inflation-adjusted
↗ EXPORTS
$13.1 Mr
40transactions
↘ IMPORTS
$1.0 Mr
21transactions
Σ TOTAL
$14.1 Mr
68transactions
CountryExport (→)Import (←)Total
United Arab Emirates$3.7 Mr—$3.7 Mr
Saudi Arabia$3.3 Mr—$3.3 Mr
India$3.3 Mr—$3.3 Mr
Iraq$2.9 Mr—$2.9 Mr
United States—$893 M$893 M
Israel—$106 M$106 M
Sum of all defense deals in our database, adjusted to 2025 prices (CPI). Exports (→) are what this country sold, imports (←) what it bought. Covers only transactions recorded in our archive; the real historical total is higher.
MOST POPULAR PRODUCTSused by 59 countries
  1. #117country
  2. #2
    Bell 429 GlobalRanger
    Utility / Transport Helicopters
    15country
  3. #312country
  4. #411country
  1. #5
    K239 Chunmoo
    Multiple Launch Rocket Systems (MLRS)
    9country
  2. #6
    AT-1K Raybolt
    Anti-Tank Guided Missiles (ATGM)
    7country
  3. #7
    Daewoo Precision Industries K3
    Light Machine Guns (LMG/SAW)
    7country
  4. #87country
05 / History & Conflicts · 13 armed events
Fire Line Most active: Cold War
Pre-WWI / Industrial Age 1850–1913
—
World War I 1914–1918
—
Interwar Period 1919–1938
—
World War II 1939–1945
1
Early Cold War 1946–1962
9
Cold War 1963–1991
18
Post-Cold War 1992–2009
9
Modern Era 2010+
3
Alliance Network by past conflicts
Based on conflicts fought on the same or opposing side.
War Statistics South Korea · 40 conflicts
40Conflicts
6Wins
0Losses
0Draws
0Ongoing
100% win rate
35 primary actor 5 supporter 1945–2018
Human Cost · South Korea
5,522Military
5Civilian
0Displaced
Data as of 2026; figures may vary by source.

📜 Chronological Conflict List

40 conflicts · newest to oldest
Conflict Years Opponent Role Outcome
2018 Korean Navy radar lock-on incident 2018–present Japan Primary —
ROKS Cheonan sinking 2010–present (presumed) Primary Tactical Win
Bombardment of Yeonpyeong Proxy 2010–present North Korea Primary Tactical Win
Operation Ocean Shield Special Op. 2009–2016 Somali pirates Primary —
Battle of Daecheong Proxy 2009–present Intervention Primary —
Operation Phantom Linebacker Special Op. 2004–present Syria Primary —
Second Battle of Yeonpyeong Proxy 2002–present Intervention Primary Draw
Operation Enduring Freedom Special Op. 2001–2014 Intervention Primary —
First Battle of Yeonpyeong Proxy 1999 North Korea Primary Decisive Win
Battle of Yosu 1998 Intervention Primary Decisive Win
1996 Gangneung submarine infiltration incident 1996–present Intervention Primary Decisive Win
United Nations Operation in Somalia II Special Op. 1993–1995 Intervention Primary —
Coup d'état of May Seventeenth Coup 1980–present Intervention Primary —
Coup d'état of December Twelfth Coup 1979–present Shingunbu Hanahoe military clique Military Security Command Primary —
1973 in the Vietnam War Interstate 1973–present Communist forces: Viet Cong Khmer Rouge Pathet Lao Primary Ceasefire
1972 in the Vietnam War Interstate 1972–present Communist forces: Viet Cong Khmer Rouge Pathet Lao Primary Tactical Win
1971 in the Vietnam War Interstate 1971–present Communist forces: Viet Cong Khmer Rouge Pathet Lao Primary Tactical Loss
1970 in the Vietnam War Interstate 1970–present Communist forces: Viet Cong Khmer Rouge Pathet Lao Primary Ongoing
1969 in the Vietnam War Interstate 1969–present Communist forces: Viet Cong Khmer Rouge Pathet Lao Primary Ongoing
1968 in the Vietnam War Interstate 1968–present Communist forces: Viet Cong Khmer Rouge Pathet Lao Primary Tactical Win
Blue House raid Proxy 1968 Intervention Primary Decisive Win
Operation Hong Kil Dong Special Op. 1967 North Vietnam Viet Cong Primary Decisive Win
1967 in the Vietnam War Interstate 1967–present Communist forces: Viet Cong Pathet Lao Primary Ongoing
Operation Pershing Special Op. 1967–1968 North Vietnam Secondary Decisive Win
Operation Hood River Special Op. 1967 North Vietnam Secondary Draw
Battle of Tra Binh Dong Proxy 1967 Viet Cong Primary Decisive Win
1966 in the Vietnam War Interstate 1966–present Communist forces: Viet Cong Pathet Lao Primary Ongoing
Operation Van Buren Special Op. 1966 North Vietnam Secondary Decisive Win
Operation Geronimo Special Op. 1966 North Vietnam Secondary Decisive Win
Battle of Đức Cơ 1966–present Intervention Secondary Decisive Win
Vietnam War Proxy 1955–1975 {{Plainlist| (from 1959) }} Primary Decisive Win
Operation Rat Killer Special Op. 1951–1952 Intervention Primary Decisive Win
Operation Pokpoong Special Op. 1950 North Korea&nbsp Primary Tactical Loss
Battle of Kaesong–Munsan Proxy 1950 Intervention Primary Decisive Loss
Battle of Ongjin Proxy 1950 Intervention Primary Decisive Win
Korean War Interstate 1950–1953 {{Plainlist | }} Primary —
Second Phase Offensive Special Op. 1950 Intervention Primary Decisive Loss
Jeju Uprising Insurgency 1948–1949 Intervention Primary —
Yeosu–Suncheon Rebellion Insurgency 1948 Intervention Primary —
Operation Blacklist Forty Special Op. 1945–1948 ---- (until 1946) 22px Korean communists Primary Decisive Win
1 / 4
06 / Geostrategy · comparative
A
VS
B
South KoreavsRussia
01Personnel
Active Personnel
500,000+%80900,000 ▲
Reserve Personnel
▲ 3,000,000+%502,000,000
Paramilitary Personnel
100,000+%454554,000 ▲
Total Military Personnel
▲ 3,500,000+%212,900,000
Available for Military Service
20,000,000+%12545,000,000 ▲
Reaching Military Age Annually
500,000+%1001,000,000 ▲
Conscription Duration (days)
18 day×20.3365 day ▲
02Land Forces
Total Tanks
2,500+%122,800 ▲
IFV Count
2,500+%804,500 ▲
APC Count
2,500+%1406,000 ▲
Recon Vehicle Count
500+%3002,000 ▲
MRAP Count
1,000=1,000
Towed Artillery Count
▲ 3,000+%502,000
Self-Propelled Artillery Count
1,500+%672,500 ▲
MLRS Count
500+%2001,500 ▲
Mortar Count
2,000+%503,000 ▲
ATGM Launcher Count
5,000=5,000
SHORAD Count
1,000=1,000
MANPADS Count
5,000+%10010,000 ▲
03Air Forces
Total Aircraft
1,500+%1333,500 ▲
Fighter Aircraft Count
400+%100800 ▲
Ground Attack Aircraft Count
100+%100200 ▲
Bomber Aircraft Count
0+%10070 ▲
Transport Aircraft Count
100+%400500 ▲
Tanker Aircraft Count
10+%10020 ▲
AWACS Count
4+%40020 ▲
Trainer Aircraft Count
100+%200300 ▲
Total Helicopters
600+%1501,500 ▲
Attack Helicopter Count
300+%67500 ▲
Transport Helicopter Count
200+%200600 ▲
UAV Count
500+%3002,000 ▲
04Naval Forces
Total Ships
▲ 160+%12970
Aircraft Carrier Count
1=1
Amphibious Assault Ship Count
1=1
Cruiser Count
0+%1004 ▲
Destroyer Count
12+%2515 ▲
Frigate Count
▲ 12+%2010
Corvette Count
▲ 20+%10010
Total Submarines
20+%25070 ▲
SSN Count
0+%10015 ▲
SSBN Count
0+%10011 ▲
Patrol Boat Count
▲ 80+%6050
05Strategic Forces
Nuclear Warhead Count
0+%1005,889 ▲
Deployed Warhead Count
0+%1001,570 ▲
ICBM Count
0+%100310 ▲
SLBM Count
0+%100160 ▲
IRBM Count
0=0
06Budget & Economy
Defense Budget (USD)
50,000,000,000 USD+%7386,400,000,000 USD ▲
Defense Budget (% of GDP)
2 %+%2006 % ▲
Defense Budget per Capita (USD)
▲ 967 USD+%64590 USD
GDP (Nominal, USD)
1,700,000,000,000 USD+%322,240,000,000,000 USD ▲
GDP (PPP, USD)
2,500,000,000,000 USD+%804,500,000,000,000 USD ▲
Arms Exports (USD)
1,000,000,000 USD×14.014,000,000,000 USD ▲
Arms Imports (USD)
▲ 15,000,000,000 USD×15.01,000,000,000 USD
Defense Industry Rank
▲ 6+%2002
Defense Industry Size (USD)
15,000,000,000 USD+%33365,000,000,000 USD ▲
Defense Sector Employment
500,000+%4002,500,000 ▲
07Logistics & Infrastructure
Military Airport Count
20×12.5250 ▲
Total Airport Count
100×12.21,216 ▲
Major Port Count
10+%30040 ▲
Oil Production (bbl/day)
40,000 bbl/day×262.510,500,000 bbl/day ▲
Oil Reserves (bbl)
200,000,000 bbl×400.080,000,000,000 bbl ▲
Coastline (km)
2,413 km×15.637,653 km ▲
08Demographics
Total Population
51,700,000+%183146,424,729 ▲
Military Age Population
35,000,000+%5755,000,000 ▲
Urban Population (%)
▲ 81 %+%974 %
Literacy Rate (%)
98 %+%199 % ▲
Area (km²)
100,000 km²×171.017,098,246 km² ▲
📚 Sources
  1. Publicly available open sources and databases.